Cross-cultural and developmental analyses on children's swimming competence /

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Student Theses

2025

Xu, Shebe Siwei

Hong Kong : The Education University of Hong Kong

Thesis

Swimming is widely recognized as both a critical life-saving skill and an important physical activity for children. Yet, research on children's swimming competence has been fragmented due to various methodological limitations, including inconsistency in the measurement of swimming competence, level of evidence in the study design, absence of longitudinal follow-up, and the diversity of the sample (e.g., age range/cultural background). Using the validated Swimming Competence Questionnaire (SCQ) as the core measurement tool, the present research project systematically investigated children's swimming competence through 4 interconnected empirical studies.Study 1 (Chapter 2) conducted the first cross-cultural comparison of preschoolers' swimming competence across Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the United States Based on data from 2,059 parent-child dyads, this study revealed marked geographical differences in swimming competence levels, Preschoolers had an average maximum swimming distance (max-dis) of 17.80 ± 61.12 meters, and swimming competence index (SCI) of 15.50 ± 19.56 out of 100. Preschoolers from Australia and the United States had significantly better swimming competence than those from Singapore and Hong Kong. There are also differences in terms of preschoolers' swimming and learning experiences, access to swimming locations and the prevalence of non-fatal aquatic events. The results highlighted sociocultural and policy-related disparities.Study 2 (Chapter 3) established the first large-scale, age- and gender-specific normative benchmarks for children's swimming competence in Hong Kong. Using data from 5,488 children aged 3-12, Study 2 applied a machine learning technique (i.e., random forest regression) to model children's developmental trajectories. Normative benchmarks and percentile curves were generated. Children's swimming competence progressed significantly with age, and males outperformed females in early childhood and early adolescence. The results can guide curriculum design, policy development, and early identification of children at risk of low competence.In Study 3 (Chapter 4), I designed and evaluated the effectiveness of a 4-week randomized controlled trial targeting treading water skills in Hong Kong. A total of 15 students (M age = 7.40 ± 1.67) were recruited from a local swimming club. The findings showed the intervention group significantly outperformed controls in swimming competence change (Hedges' g=0.99, p=.04) and treading water duration (Hedges' g=3.42, p<.001), underscoring the value of integrating survival-focused content into conventional swimming programs.In Study 4 (Chapter 5), I followed up 346 children six years after a learn-to-swim program, providing rare longitudinal evidence of competence development. The dataset in our study included responses from 346 participants (M age = 12.35 ± 0.51, 54.62% male) who completed three waves of assessments, including T0 (baseline), T1 (immediately after the learn-to-swim program), and six years after the program (T2). The results showed that children's swimming competence significantly improved from T0/T1 to T2. Notably, short-term improvement was negatively associated with long-term improvement (T1 to T2; β=−0.28, p < .01) but positively predicted sustained swimming participation at T2 (β=0.35, p < .001). Group comparisons indicated that children with greater post-intervention competence achieved the less long-term gains. Continued participation in swimming lessons was positively associated with further competence development (β= 0.41, p < .001), whereas early improvements were also found to predict higher levels of swimming participation (β=0.29, p < .01) six years later. This study underscores the importance of ongoing training and participation to help sustain skill and promote further swimming competence development.Taken together, these four studies offered novel evidence on children's swimming competence, advancing the field theoretically, methodologically, and practically. It reconceptualizes swimming competence as a multidimensional and developmental construct. The use of SCQ as a scalable assessment tool provides both normative and longitudinal evidence for policy and practice. In conclusion, my thesis has provided critical insights for understanding young children's mastery of swimming competence from a developmental and cross-cultural perspective. The findings advocate a paradigm shift in children's swimming education, moving from fragmented, short-term training to a systematic, safety-oriented curriculum that promotes continuous participation

LG51.H43 Dr 2025eb Xuss

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